Chopper and chopper-multiplexer circuitry for measurement of remote low-level signals

ABSTRACT

A balanced bridge chopper circuit including four metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) is driven by a remote oscillator connected through an isolator to modulate low-voltage low-frequency input signals at their remote source into a square wave A.C. output signal that can be conducted to a common point where it is amplified and demodulated for better linear measurement of said low-voltage signals. The oscillator is connected through the isolator to the bridge circuit in such a manner that opposing pairs of the bridge transistors are simultaneously conducting. The isolator may comprise a novel photovoltaic isolation device or it may consist of an isolation transformer or of other types of electrical isolation devices. The transistors and input and output terminals for the bridge circuit are shielded and are mounted on a heat sink consisting of a thermally conducting metal plate and/or a metal oxide single crystal which is in common with the shield and/or one terminal of the low-voltage source such that all leads and terminals are maintained at a constant temperature and preferably at the same temperature as the low-voltage source. Air currents are prevented from causing thermally induced voltages within the bridge circuit by the circuit shield and in some extreme cases by the use of a hermetically sealed shield for the critical circuit elements and connections. For accurately balancing out interelectrode capacitance-coupled gate drive to low-level channel signals, a pair of variable capacitors are connected between one output terminal of the bridge circuit and the gate of each of its two adjacent transistors. The balanced bridge chopper may be produced as a monolithic planar-silicon integrated circuit in which gate-to-channel capacitance balancing is accomplished during manufacturing in place of the variable capacitors. A novel balanced input filter and trimmer capacitors between the bridge output terminals and local ground greatly reduce 60 Hz. common mode noise. In a hybrid circuit embodiment of the bridge circuit, the individual MOSFET chips forming the bridge circuit are bonded and interconnected within a hermetically sealed and magnetically transparent metal oxide single crystalline container. Multiplexing circuitry is also disclosed for driving several chopper circuits from a single oscillator and for connecting the outputs from the chopper circuits to a single amplifier and demodulator at a remote location.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation-in-part of my copending patent application Ser.No. 445,929, filed Feb. 26, 1974 and now abandoned.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In the instrumentation, control and related arts, it is often desirableto connect a remote voltage source to a distant point for measurement orcontrol purposes. For example, thermocouples are generally located manyfeet from a temperature indicating meter. Similarly, other transducersand sensor type voltage sources are often remotely spaced fromindicating or control circuitry which is responsive to a sensedcondition. In the past, noise considerations have generally necessitatedthat the voltage source generate a voltage on at least the millivoltlevel for reliable information transfer with a remote instrument orother receiver.

Previously, low-voltage, low-frequency signals, particularly those inthe microvolt to nanovolt range, have been very difficult and oftenimpossible to measure because the signals to be measured wereindistinguishable from noise which was both generated within and inducedinto the system. One major noise source has been found to be a commonmode voltage appearing between the "local ground" at the remotelow-level voltage source and the "reference ground" at the distantmeter, instrument or other receiver. The low-level voltage source iseither directly connected to the local ground or effectively connectedto the local ground through leakage resisitances and leakagecapacitances which result from the physical support of the source atlocal ground as well as the proximity of nearby objects. These valuescan have an enormously wide range of possibilities, depending in detailon the nature of the source and the specific point of application. Herethe source could be a thermocouple, pH electrode or several other commontransducers, whereas local ground could be a furnace, machine, or even ahuman patient. By the nature of any local ground, composed of heavy basemetal plates, wires, supporting fixtures, etc., and the fact thatrotating machinery, power using equipment and power cables could be inthe general vicinity, at least in most industrial or laboratoryenvironments, it is common to find a sizable potential differencebetween local ground and reference ground. This potential difference,which is predominately steady state 60 Hz. of up to 1 volt, could undersome special cases consist of transients of several hundred voltmagnitudes lasting up to a few milliseconds in time.

Where the remote low-level voltage source is connected to a distantmeter by a wire, magnetically induced voltages may also occur in thesystem. This noise source is produced by magnetic flux changes over aperiod of time. Mechanical motion of charged objects near the low-levelvoltage source and all along the wire connected to the meter alsoproduce noise transients in the system. The most common form of such"charge sources" are humans, often with at least one meter operatorinvolved. Depending on humidity conditions, a single human being can acttypically as a one microfarad capacitor to ground, charged to severalthousand volts potential. It is not necessary that humans or otherobjects actually touch either the wire or immediate fixtures, inasmuchas relative motion causes their distributed capacitance to changesufficiently in time to cause signiificant transient current to flow inthe circuit.

Still another important noise source is galvanomagnetic voltage sources,the principal source of which is the phenomenon of thermoelectricity.These sources are principally D.C. in nature, but can have components oftime change representable by thermal time constants associated with thethermal mass and thermal insulation of the connecting wire or circuitinvolved. Because, in general, the source and meter are at differenttemperatures, each electrical connection acts as an individualthermocouple wire generating a distributed voltage within itself.

Remote sensing of sub-microvolt level signals at near D.C. frequenciescan be seen as being most severely limited by two effects: (1)thermoelectric voltage instability on the signal lines, especially undersevere temperature gradient conditions, and (2) inability to remove oneend of the source from local ground. These are the main reasons whysub-microvolt level measurements are seldom attempted for remoteapplications, even with the most advanced state of the art equipment.

One prior art method for increasing the reliability of low-level signaltransmission systems involves modulating the low-level D.C. orlow-frequency A.C. signal at the common meter input with a choppercircuit. The chopper converts the low-level voltage at the source intoan alternating current signal of a higher frequency and of substantiallya square wave form. Hitt et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,397,353, issued Aug.13, 1968, and No. 3,585,518, issued June 15, 1971, teach the use offield effect transistors in a chopper array which is non-symmetricalwith respect to common or ground. The chopper utilizes a singlebalancing capacitor and/or a special transformer to aid in reduction ofchopper drive signal to low-level channel coupling. This non-symmetricalarray and/or need for a costly balancing transformer limits the completeand economical solution for drive signal coupling problems.

Banasiewicz et al. U.S. Pat. No. 3,621,474, issued Nov. 16, 1971,teaches a modulator or chopper using a balanced bridge configuration offield effect transistors (FETs) in obtaining the modulation of a carriersignal with a source signal. This technique of impressing the sourcesignal on the gates of the transistors prevents complete source signalchopping from occurring, which is incompatible with low-level signalmodulation, amplification and demodulation measuring techniques.

Lynn et al. U.S. Pat. No. 3,612,903, issued Oct. 12, 1971, teaches theuse of a balanced bridge field effect transistor chopper circuit otmoderate low-level signal capability. The use of junction field effecttransistors (JFETs) in the legs of the bridge is a serious limitation,permitting gate drive leakage current to reach the low-level channel.JFETs also require the added use of transformer secondary circuit diodesand discharge resistors that add to the cost and add a potentiallytroublesome reduction in circuit reliability. The use of seriesresistors and an adjustable resistor in the low-level channel add costincreases to the chopper and add thermal voltage sources into thelow-level channel, a further noise source. Their use of resistorbalancing for capacitor coupled gate signal to low-level channelbalancing makes the balance condition frequency dependent. Failure toprovide heat sinks or other thermal stabilizing influences on thiscircuitry permits internally generated voltages to limit the Lynn et al.chopper to the microvolt or higher voltage ranges.

The above and other prior art chopper circuits have been limited inapplications involving very low-level signals due to troublesome noisewhich generally results from two sources. One is the thermoelectricallycaused low-frequency noise resulting from inadequate thermalstabilization of circuit elements and junctions. The other is largecommon mode signal sources which become incorporated into the signalchannel of most priot art chopper circuits by the nature of theirnon-symmetrical relation to ground. The circuits of the presentinvention directly address these problems and consequently offersignificant improvements over the prior low-level signal processing art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Generally speaking, the present invention involves the modulation oflow-voltage signals, ranging from about one nanovolt to about one voltand in frequency from D.C. to low audio frequency, into a square wavesignal of audio frequency or higher. Modulation is effected by a simplebalanced bridge chopping circuit of four insulated gate field effecttransistors (IGFETs), preferably of the metal oxide semiconductor fieldeffect transistor type, hereinafter referred to as MOSFETs, which arephysically mounted on a heat sink and are shielded from temperaturegradients and/or air currents. The bridge circuit is located physicallyadjacent and heat sinked to the source voltage, which is located remotefrom and isolated from its driving square wave source so as to preventas much as possible drive signal coupling to the low-level channel.Also, the MOSFETs which form the bridge circuit are capacitivelybalanced. In one embodiment of the chopper, the square wave drivingsource is isolated from the bridge circuit by a driving transformerwhich has two center tapped secondary coils which are so connected bytwisted and shielded pairs of leads to each MOSFET as to minimizemagnetic flux coupling and to prevent drive voltage capacitance pickupin the bridge circuit while simultaneously causing the opposing MOSFETsin the bridge circuit to conduct in alternating or chopping fashion. Ina significantly modified embodiment, either a prior art opticalisolation device combined with a D.C. voltage source or a light emittingdiode (LED)-photo-voltaic diode array provides optical isolation betweenthe square wave driving source and the MOSFETs in the bridge circuit.Both isolator embodiments provide a high impendance isolation betweenthe locally grounded chopper and the reference grounded oscillator.

The heat sink may comprise a heat conducting metal plate, such as ofaluminum or copper in combination with mica or thin plastic insulators,and/or it may comprise a single crystal of a metal oxide single crystalsuch as sapphire, quartz or diamond. When discrete MOSFETs are used,their hermetic containers are cemented in snug holes in these metalplates. Or, they are soldered to the faces of the single crystals, whenencountered in non-encapsulated chip form. The terminals of the bridgeare also heat sinks and may comprise copper threaded bolts and nutsextending through in thermally conducting but electrically insulatedfashion from the plates, or they may be copper pots soldered to asapphire, quartz or diamond heat sink. The whole assembly is thencovered with a shield, such as of light aluminum, to prevent aircurrents from further causing thermal gradients within the terminals orMOSFETs mounted on the plate. Ultimate voltage stability is achieved bymounting the low-voltage source on a common heat sink or plate with thebalanced bridge circuit as at a location remote to the transformers andremaining amplifier and processing circuitry.

The normally off MOSFETs are arranged in the bridge circuit so that theyform the configuration of a square, in which each conducting leg of thesquare includes one MOSFET connected to its drain/source terminals orchannel contacts. One pair of opposite corners of this squareconfiguration comprise the input terminals to the balanced bridgecircuit and the other opposite pair of corners comprise the outputterminals of the balanced bridge circuit. The low-voltage source to bechopped or modulated by the bridge circuit is connected either directlyto the input terminals or through a balanced twin-tee filter to theinput terminals. The input filter is tuned to 60Hz. resonance in thiscase, but other common mode frequencies can likewise be resonated toattenuate not only the dominant common-mode signal, but also all higherfrequency common-mode signals, thereby preventing such signals fromcausing serious saturation cutoffs, and nonlinear distortions of thedesirable signal in early stages of the signal processing. Each of theinput terminals is also connected, through a high-value resistor and/orbiasing voltage, to the substrate terminals of the two adjacent MOSFETs.

The square wave source for driving the balanced bridge chopper ispreferably generated by a conventional square wave generator connectedto the isolator, both of which are located away from the chopper andlow-voltage source. The drive transformer, when used, is preferablycomposed of a single primary coil connected to an osicillator or squarewave generator, and two center tapped secondary coils, all three ofwhich are wound on a common core. One of the two secondary coils has itsends connected to the gates of one pair of normally off MOSFETs adjacentone input terminal, while its center tap is connected to that inputterminal. The ends of the other secondary coil are connected to thegates of the other two normally off MOSFETs adjacent to the other inputterminal, with its center tap connected to that input terminal. Phasingof the connections between the two secondary windings and the MOSFETgates is so arranged that the pairs of MOSFETs opposite each other inthe bridge circuit are simultaneously on while the other pair of opposedMOSFETs are simultaneously off. Since the driving transformer is remotefrom the chopper, the conductors between them should preferably comprisesix wires arranged into three twisted pairs: one pair from the ends ofone secondary winding for the gates of one pair of MOSFETs, another pairfrom the ends of the other secondary winding for the gates of the otherpair of MOSFETs, and the third pair from the center taps to the twoinput terminals. All three twisted pairs are located within a commonouter shield which is connected to the local ground.

Since it is practically impossible to obtain four discrete MOSFETs whichare exactly equal in their internal capacitance and resistance, a pairof trimmer capacitors or condensers, usually in the low picofarad range,are connected between one bridge output terminal and the gates of thetwo MOSFETs connected to that output terminal for balancing out anygate-drive voltage which has been capacitively coupled to the low-levelchannel. Trimmer capacitors may also be connected between the outputterminals from the bridge circuit and the local ground to furtherbalance out any common-mode signal appearing at the output terminalsfrom the bridge. The chopper of this invention may be manufactured as aplanar integrated circuit with one or more balanced bridge circuitsformed entirely within and on a single crystal of silicon. In massproduction, such an integrated circuit can be standardized so that eachof the four MOSFET gate arms are capacitively balanced, therebyeliminating the need for the gate connected trimmer capacitors.

The output from the remote chopper circuit of the invention, since it isan A.C. signal, may be transmitted by a triple coaxial cable to adistant point for amplification and/or demodulation, such as to adistantly located coupling transformer, A.C. amplifier, synchronousdemodulator which is preferably driven and coupled through a transformerfrom the same oscillator that drives the balanced bridge circuit orchopper, so as to be in synchronism with the modulated signals to bedetected, and thence from the demodulator through a D.C. amplifier.Significant advantage is herein gained by transmitting A.C. rather thanD.C. low-level signals from the near presence of the remote source tothe distant first stage of amplification. That is, the transmitted A.C.signal can no longer be deteriorated by near-D.C. thermally generatedlead signals.

According to a further aspect of the invention, a plurality of theremote chopper circuits may be connected in a multiplexing circuit. In acontrolled process or system, for example, a plurality of differentvoltage sources or transducers can monitor different conditions orparameters. Each separate source is connected to the input of adifferent balanced bridge chopper. The remote chopper outputs areconnected to triple coaxial cables which lead to and are connected inparallel to the distant A.C. amplifier, demodulator and D.C. amplifier.The final D.C. output may be digitized and supplied to a programmablecontroller, such as a digital computer. The controller and address logicdetermine which one of the chopper circuits is driven by the square wavedrive source at any given time. Switched remote preamplifiers may beprovided for selectively connecting the outputs from the differentchoppers to the common first stage amplifier at the same time thechopper receives a drive signal. The switched preamplifiers areparticularly useful for sub-microvolt applications and/or for systemswhere the sources require local common grounding.

Accordingly, it is an object of this invention to provide apparatus foraccurately measuring from a common location low-level voltages from acollection of one or more remote sources.

Another object of this invention is to produce a simple, efficient,effective, economic, compact, shielded, reliable and substantiallycompletely balanced chopper circuit for modulating low-voltage signalsthat is substantially unaffected by outside changes in temperature, aircurrents, and/or magnetic fields.

Another object of this invention is to produce such a chopper circuitwhich is mounted on a heat sink to prevent slow voltage drifts and otherspurious thermally generated voltages from affecting low-level signalsto be modulated, which eliminates substantially all conductive leakageof its transistors and which improves the voltage sensitivity of thecircuit over prior known circuits by a factor of about one thousand.

Another object is to produce such a chopper circuit which has no movingparts, may be encapsulated and/or integrated, and which will operateaccurately from room temperature to substantially absolute zero, and canbe installed adjacent to the source it is to modulate and remote fromits driving and detecting circuits.

Another object of this invention is to provide a chopper circuitsuitable for locating adjacent a very low-level, remotely-locatedvoltage source for modulating such source prior to conducting themodulated low-level voltage to a distant point.

Still another object of the invention is to provide apparatus formultiplexing a plurality of low-level signals from remote sources to adistant point.

Other objects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description, with reference being made to theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. I is a schematic block diagram of a low-voltage modulating anddetecting circuit employing a balanced bridge chopping circuit inaccordance with the features of this invention;

FIG. II discloses a schematic wiring diagram of the balanced bridgechopping circuit according to one embodiment of the invention, with itsinput circuits thereto, namely the low-voltage source to be modulated,and the driving square wave source and its coupling transformer;

FIG. III is a side elevation of one embodiment of apparatusincorporating a mechanical stud type heat sink for the chopping circuitshown in FIG. II, with part of the cover therefor being broken away;

FIG. IV is an end view of the apparatus shown in FIG. III, with part ofits cover broken away;

FIG. V is a rear view of the apparatus shown in FIG. III;

FIG. VI is an enlarged sectional view of one of the heat sink terminalstaken along line VI--VI in the central portionn of FIG. IV;

FIG. VII is an enlarged sectional view taken along line VII--VII of FIG.III showing the mounting of one of the transistors in the heat sinkplate;

FIG. VIII is a side elevational view, similar to FIG. III, of anotherembodiment of apparatus according to this invention incorporating achopping circuit in which the terminals are soldered to a metal oxidesingle crystal heat sink instead of being attached to studs;

FIG. IX is an end view of the apparatus shown in FIG. VIII showing theedge of the crystal upon which the terminals are mounted and the bossupon which the crystal is mounted;

FIG. X is a rear view of the apparatus shown in FIG. VIII;

FIG. XI is an enlarged schematic diagram of another embodiment of thechopper circuit, wherein four chip type MOSFETs and the four terminalsof the circuit are all mounted on a metal oxide single crystal heat sinkplate with its single crystal cover removed;

FIG. XII is a further enlarged sectional view taken along line XII--XIIof FIG. XI showing the bonding layer over the metal conducting layer forand to the edge of the single crystal cover;

FIG. XIII is a schematic wiring diagram of a modified balanced bridgechopping circuit according to the present invention;

FIG. XIV is a greatly enlarged top plan view of a planar-siliconintegrated circuit embodiment of the balanced MOSFET switching bridge ofFIG. XIII with all of the MOSFET substrates in common;

FIG. XV is a cross-sectional view taken along line XV--XV of FIG. XIVand showing the channel region of one of the integrated circuit MOSFETs;

FIG. XVI is a schematic block diagram of one embodiment of a circuit formultiplexing the outputs of a plurality of chopping circuits inaccordance with this invention;

FIG. XVII is a schematic block diagram of a modified circuit formultiplexing the outputs of a plurality of chopping circuits andsuitable for extremely low-voltage operation;

FIG. XVIII is a schematic circuit diagram of a novel photovoltaicvoltage generator, driving a normally-off MOSFET, and which also may beused to replace the isolation devices and D.C. source which drive thegate contacts and the D.C. source which back-biases the substrates ofthe bridge MOSFETs in the circuit of FIG. XIII;

FIG. XIX is a greatly enlarged fragmentary view of a portion of anintegrated circuit embodiment of the photovaltaic voltage source; and

FIG. XX is a cross-sectional view taken along line XX--XX of FIG. XIX.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Referring first to FIG. I, a balanced bridge chopper 20 in accordancewith one exemplary embodiment of the invention is shown mounted on aheat sink 27 which is in common with the shield of a remotely-located,low-level voltage source 24 which is to be modulated by the chopper 20.The remotely modulated low-level voltage is easily conducted to adistant point through a coaxial cable 26 where it is coupled through atransformer 29 to an A.C. amplifier 28. The output from the amplifier 28is applied through a synchronous demodulator 30 to a D.C. amplifier 39for producing a final output.

A square wave drive source for modulating the low-voltage source in thechopper 20 comprises a remote oscillator 32 which is coupled by means ofan isolation transformer 34 through three twisted wire pairs 35, 36 and37 to the balanced bridge chopper 20. Or, the transformer 34 may bereplaced with other types of isolators, such as the photoconductiveisolators used in the circuit of FIG. XIII, but attached electrically ina different manner, or the novel photovoltaic isolation device shown inFIGS. XVI-XVIII. The drive oscillator 32, which is located remote fromthe low-level voltage source 24 and chopper 20, is also coupled througha transformer 38 to the demodulator 30, so that the demodulator 30 willbe synchronized with the signal modulated in the chopper 20. Theresulting demodulated signal then may be passed through the D.C.amplifier 39 before being applied to a final output. The final outputmay be used to drive a meter or for any other desired purpose. Ofcourse, it will be appreciated that the signal processing techniquesinvolving the A.C. amplifier 28, the synchronous demodulator 30 and theD.C. amplifier 39 are only exemplary. The chopped low-level signal maybe transmitted to any suitable circuit. Furthermore, the linear circuitmay have a manually incremented gain or an automatically incrementedgain, referred to as an autoranging response.

It will be noted that FIG. I shows two separate grounds 33 and 33'.Shielding for the twisted wire pairs 35, 36 and 37, shielding for thecoaxial cable 26 and shielding for the chopper 20 are connected to theremote local ground 33' at the low-level voltage source 24. The driveoscillator 32, the transformer 38, the A.C. amplifier 28, thedemodulator 30 and the D.C. amplifier 39 are all either connected to orlocated adjacent the reference ground 33 at the distant location of suchapparatus. The two ground levels are isolated at the transformer 29 andthe transformer or other suitable isolator 34 to minimize common modesignals. Although the two ground connections are usually continuous,their remote location will often produce a steady-state emf between themwhich may be as large as one volt and considerably higher duringtransient peaks.

Referring now to FIG. II, the source 24 is shown to be schematicallylocated in a shielded box 25 which is electrically connected to thelocal ground 33' along with the heat sink 27 and a shield 31 around thetwisted wire pairs 35, 36 and 37 for isolation. The source 24 is shownas a Thevinen's equivalent circuit of a voltage source E_(s) in serieswith an internal resistance R_(s) and is connected through terminals 72and 73 to the chopper 20 by conductors 23 which are as short aspossible.

The specific balanced bridge chopper 20 shown in FIG. II has a squareconfiguration with four legs. Four metal oxide semiconductor fieldeffect transistors (MOSFETs) 41, 42, 43 and 44, respectively, form thelegs of the bridge with the source/drain terminals connected to form thejunctions or corners of the bridge. The corners of this squareconfiguration are connected to terminals 45, 46, 47 and 48. Two opposedterminals 45 and 47 are the two input terminals which are connecteddirectly through conductors 21 and 22, respectively, to the terminals 72and 73 connected to the low-voltage source 24. The terminals 46 and 48at the remaining opposed corners of the square configuration are A.C.output terminals.

The square-wave driving voltage applied to the chopper 20 for modulatingthe low-voltage source signal is applied via conductors 51 and 52 fromthe ends of a first secondary winding 53 of the drive transformer 34,respectively, and the twisted wire pair 35 to the gates of thetransistors or MOSFETs 41 and 42 adjacent one of the input terminals 45,and via conductors 55 and 56 from the ends of a second secondary winding54 of the drive transformer 34, respectively, through the twisted-wirepair 37 to the gates of the other two transistors or MOSFETs 43 and 44adjacent to the other input terminal 47. The secondary windings 53 and54 are provided, respectively, with center taps 58 and 59. In order tosynchronize the chopper 20, the transformer 34 has both of its secondarywindings 53 and 54 wound on a common core 57 with a single primarywinding 40. The secondary windings 53 and 54 are surrounded by a shieldwhich is connected to the local ground 33' by the cable shield 31. Inaddition, center taps 58 and 59 of the two secondary windings 53 and 54are connected via the twisted wire pair 36 to the two input terminals 45and 47, respectively. Each input terminal 45 and 47 is also connected tothe substrates of the two adjacent transistors or MOSFETs, namelyMOSFETs 41 and 42 from terminal 45 and MOSFETs 43 and 44 from terminal47. For very low-voltage measurements, direct connections may be madebetween each input terminal and the substrates of the two adjoiningMOSFETs, although this is of no particular advantage. If voltagemeasurements are to include a range of values larger than about onemillivolt, it is preferable for greater circuit flexibility to connectthe input terminal 45 through a high-valued resistor 49 (typically 10megohms) to the substrates of the adjoining MOSFETs 41 and 42 and toconnect the input terminal 47 through a similar high-valued resistor 50to the substrates of the adjoining MOSFETs 43 and 44. In a modificationto the circuit shown in FIG. II, the substrate resistors 49 and 50 canbe replaced with D.C. voltage sources (not shown) of about two to fivevolts and arranged to back-bias the MOSFET substrates with respect tothe adjacent input terminals 45 and 47, respectively. This use of a D.C.voltage source becomes especially convenient when photoconductingisolators are used in place of the gate-drive transformer 34, as isdiscussed in greater detail below.

Since it is substantially impossible to get four MOSFETs which haveexactly the same internal capacitances, it is necessary that they betrimmed or balanced. Capacitive balancing is accomplished by means of apair of variable trimmer capacitors or condensers 60 and 62. Each ofthese capacitors has one of its terminals connected in common to one ofthe outputs of the chopping bridge circuit 20, herein output 46, and hasits other terminal connected to the gate of one of two MOSFETs adjacentthat output terminal, namely the other terminal of capacitor 60 to thegate of MOSFET 42 and the other terminal of the capacitor 62 to the gateof the MOSFET 43.

The coupling of the square-wave driving voltage to the chopper 20,alternately and simultaneously, causes the opposite pair of MOSFETs 41and 43 and then the opposite pair of MOSFETs 42 and 44 to be conductiveand nonconductive to modulate the low-voltage from the source 24 equallyto positive and negative portions of the square wave taken from theoutput terminals 46 and 48. In other words, the A.C. signal appearing atthe output terminals 46 and 48 is a square wave which is symmetricalaround the voltage at the local ground 33' and has a peak-to-peakamplitude of 2E_(s). The A.C. modulated signal at the output terminals46 and 48 from the chopper 20 may be easily conducted through thecoaxial cable 26 to a distant location for amplification, demodulationand detection.

The coaxial cable 26 is of a triple coaxial cable type having an inneror center conductor 64 connected to one of the chopper input terminals,herein terminal 48, and an outer conductor 65 connected to the otherchopper output terminal 46. Shielding 66 surrounding the outer conductor65 is connected to the local ground 33' at the low-level voltage source24. The shielding 66 eliminates electrostatic effects on the cable 26while the symmetry of the triple coaxial cable 26 eliminatesmagnetically induced signals along the high impedance path.

The distant end of the coaxial cable 26 is shown connected to a primarywinding 68 of the transformer 29 while a secondary winding 69 isconnected to the A.C. amplifier 28. The primary winding 68 is alsoshielded and connected through the cable shielding 66 to the localground 33'.

One specific exemplary structural embodiment for the balanced bridgechopper 20 is shown in FIGS. III through VII, which comprises aninverted T-shaped heat sink metal plate and support 70 of aluminum orcopper, which may be mounted by means of screws 71 to the support andshield of the low-voltage source 24, thereby also providing them with acommon heat sink as is shown in FIG. I. This plate 70 may be providedwith several apertures for heat sink type terminals of the type shown indetail in FIG. VI, and also with blind holes for heat sink mounting thecans or covers of the MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44, as shown in FIG. VII.

One of the terminals, namely output terminal 46, is shown enlarged andin section in FIG. VI. The terminal 46 is similar in construction toeach of the other terminals 45, 47 and 48, as well as the additionalexternal input terminals 72 and 73 used for making electrical connectionto the conductors 23 from the low-voltage source 24. Each of theseterminals comprises centrally, a copper threaded screw, stud or threadedrod 75 which extends through an aperture 76 in the plate 70. Theaperture 76 is larger in diameter than the outside diameter of the screw75 in order to include an electrically insulating sleeve 77. At each endof the aperture 76 and concentric therewith is provided an electricallyinsulated washer 78, such as a silicon-greased mica washer, so as toelectrically insulate the screw 75 and copper end nuts 80 and 82threaded on the screw 75 from the plate 70. Between the nut 82 and theinsulating washer 78, there is provided a carefully deburred copperwasher 83, and between the nut 80 and the other washer 78 there isprovided a pair of carefully deburred copper washers 84. Between thepair of washers 84, an apertured conductor terminal 85 is clamped. Theterminal 85 is mounted on the end of one or more of the conductorsconnected to the bridge terminal 46. The relative mass of the screw 75and the nuts 80 and 82 connecting the screw 75 to the plate 70 for eachof the terminals 45-48, 72 and 73, effectively acts as a heat sink toreduce any spurious thermoelectric voltages at these terminals.

If desired, insulated terminals blocks 90 and 92 may be provided formaking terminal connections to the ends of the output cable 26 and theends of the twisted wire pairs 35, 36 and 37 in the shielded cable 31from the drive transformer 34 before being connected to the heat sinkedterminals 45, 46, 47 and 48 in accordance with the circuit shown in FIG.II. The locally grounded shields 66 and 31 are shown extending aroundeach of the cable 26 and the three twisted wire pairs 35, 36 and 37,respectively, in FIGS. II and III, which cable and wires extend throughapertures in the plate 70 as shown in FIGS. III and V. The shields 66and 31 are grounded to the plate 70.

The trimmer capacitors 60 and 62 for the MOSFETs are also mounted on andthrough the plate 70 and may have slotted screwdriver adjustments 61 and63, respectively, projecting through the back of the plate 70 as shownin FIG. V. The purpose of this arrangement is to permit final balancingout of the coupled gate-drive signal from the low-level circuit whilethe shield cover is in place.

The MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 are preferably coated with an insulatinglayer 93, such as varnished paper or a light gauge nylon mesh, and aremounted in snugly fitted blind holes 95 as MOSFET 43 is shown in FIG.VII. A diametrical slot 97 extends across the hole 95. When the MOSFETsare installed, they are first dipped in a fresh adhesive hardening resinsuch as varnish for anchoring them in place in their holes 95. If theMOSFETs are to be removed, a solvent is introduced into the slot 97 todissolve the resin.

The assembly of parts on the plate 70 as shown in FIG. III, comprisingthe MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44, the terminals 45, 46, 47 and 48, thecapacitors 60 and 62 and the terminal blocks 90 and 92, is preferablyenclosed by a cover 100, such as a box of light aluminum. The cover 100is shown as having tabs 99 on its corners for anchoring it to the plate70. Similarly, the other side of the terminals 45, 46, 47 and 48 shouldbe enclosed by a cover 101, as shown in FIGS. IV and V. The covers 100and 101 serve multiple functions as heat sinks, as electrostaticshields, as dust hoods to help maintain the necessary high electricalleakage resistance required at the heat sinked connections and, by themounting screws 71, as remote local ground points. The covers 100 and101 facilitate using the chopper 20 in industrial or other hostileenvironments wherein temperature extremes, temperature gradients andelectrical and magnetic noise may exist.

Referring now to FIGS. VIII, IX and X, there is shown apparatus similarto that shown in FIGS. III, IV and V, in which similar parts have beengiven the same reference characters. Instead of employing the bolts andnuts for the heat sinked terminals 45, 46, 47 and 48, in thisembodiment, terminals 45', 46', 47' and 48' have been fabricated byusing terminals 111 mounted on an electrically insulating and heatconducting metal oxide single crystal 110 which is in turn mounted on araised boss portion 105 (shown in FIG. IX) of the copper heat sink plate70. The metal oxide single crystal 110, such as sapphire, is soldered bypure indium solder 106 to the boss 105 and the separate button or potcopper terminals 111 are similarly soldered to its other side. However,the solder used within the terminals 111 for making electrical circuitconnections is composed preferably of 44% atomic indium, 42% atomic tinand 14% atomic cadmium, or of a suitable substitute which melts wellbelow the melting temperature of pure indium. This permits soldering theleads to and from the chopper bridge circuit 20 to the terminals 111without the terminals 111 separating from the crystal 110. Thisconstruction using the heat sinked crystal 110 eliminates the necessityof apertures in the plate 70 for the four terminals 45', 46', 47' and48', as well as the need for a rear cover 101 (see FIGS. IX and X).

Referring now to FIG. XI, a physically compact hybrid circuit embodimentof the chopper 20 is shown in which each of the transistors or MOSFETs41, 42, 43 and 44 in a non-encapsulated chip form are mounted on aprinted circuit having radially outwardly extending metal conductinglayers 114-121 which comprise the lead contacts to and from thesetransistors or MOSFETs. The printed circuit is formed on a thermallyconducting but electrically insulating single crystal plate 113, such assapphire, of about one or two centimeters square which also acts as theheat sink. Printed on the plate 113 are all of the terminals 114-121 forthe balanced bridge chopper 20 of FIG. II. The two MOSFETs 41 and 42having interconnected substrates are mounted on a common electricallyconducting substrate pad 122 printed on the plate 113 and the other twoMOSFETs 43 and 44 having interconnected substrates are mounted on acommon electrically conducting substrate pad 123 printed on the plate113. Wires from the substrates of each of the MOSFETs 41-44 are furthersoldered or bonded to the adjacent pad 122 or 123. The conducting layer114 forms the input terminal 45 and is connected directly tosource/drain contacts of the MOSFETs 41 and 42 and also through thehigh-valued substrate resistor 49 to the pad 122. Similarly, theconducting layer 116 forms the other input terminal 47 and is connecteddirectly to source/drain contacts of the MOSFETs 43 and 44 and alsothrough the high-valued substrate resistor 50 to the pad 123. Theconducting layer 115 forms the output terminal 46 and is connecteddirectly to the source/drain contacts of the MOSFETs 42 and 43, and theconducting layer 117 forms the other output terminal 48 and is connecteddirectly to the source/drain contacts of the MOSFETs 41 and 44. Gatecontacts of the MOSFETs 41-44 are connected, respectively, to theconducting layers 118-121. Connections between the conducting layers114-121 and the MOSFETs 41-44 are made by bonded wires.

The outwardly extending radial portions of each of the printedconducting layers 114-121 all pass under an annular band 124 of glassfrit, or other suitable bonding agent, which is fused to the top surfaceof the plate 113. A metal oxide single crystal cover 125 (see FIG. XII)of substantially the same composition as the plate 113 is fused to theband 124 to hermetically seal and encapsulate the bridge circuit 20.Prior to encapsulation, the cover 125 has its band contacting edge alsoimpregnated with a fused glass frit layer 126, or other suitable bondingagent, so that the two glass frit layers or bonding agents 124 and 126can be readily fused together to make the seal. The centers of each ofthe circular outer ends of the printed conducting layers 114-121 areshown to have holes drilled through them and through the adjoining plate113 for making electrical connections to the conducting layers 114-121in a conventional manner.

Turning now to FIG. XIII, a modified circuit is shown for the balancedbridge chopper 20' which is particularly suitable for rejection ofundesirable common-mode signals in the measurement of remote voltages aslow as a few nanovolts in extremely adverse noise environments. Thechopper 20' is provided with a balanced twin-tee input filter 130 forassisting in the elimination of common-mode signals, being mosteffective at the resonant filter frequency, which is usually but notnecessarily adjusted to 60 Hz. Optical isolation between the localground 33' and the reference ground 33 is provided for the square wavechopper drive, functionally taking the place of the isolationtransformer 34 shown in the circuit of FIG. II. However, it is to berecognized that whereas photoconductive isolators and transformers maybe interchanged in the gate drivers of the two circuits of FIGS. II andXIII, the details of the two circuits are distinctly unique. Finally,the chopper 20' includes a preamplifier 131 for the A.C. output. Thepreamplifier 131 improves the common-mode rejection capability of thesystem. The preamplifier 131 also reduces the effects of distributedcapacitance along the transmission line connecting the chopper 20' tothe remote receiver and the effects of capacitive loading when theoutputs from several choppers 20' are multiplexed on a singletransmission line connected to a single receiver, as will be discussedin greater detail below in reference to FIGS. XVI and XVII.

The external input terminals 72 and 73, which are connected to thelow-level voltage source, are connected through the input filter 130 tothe input terminals 45 and 47 of the balanced bridge chopper 20'. Thebalanced twin-tee input filter 130 is of a novel symmetrical RC design.The terminal 72 is connected through a parallel capacitor 132 andresistor 133 to the bridge terminal 45 and through a series variableresistor 134 and capacitor 135 to the bridge terminal 47. Similarly, theterminal 73 is connected through a parallel capacitor 136 and resistor137 to the bridge terminal 47 and through a series variable resistor 138and capacitor 139 to the bridge terminal 45. In addition, two zenerdiodes 128 and 129 are connected in series and back-to-back between theterminals 45 and 47 to function with the resistors 133 and 137 inprotecting the MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 of the chopper 20 fromdestructive voltage surges or from an accidental application of ahigh-voltage to the terminals 72 and 73.

The actual component values and quality of the resistors and capacitorsin the input filter 130 must be carefully selected when extremely lowvoltages such as a few nanovolts are to be modulated, or the filter 130will become a significant noise source. In very low-level applications,resistor elements become a source of Johnson noise. Since the equivalentJohnson noise voltage from a resistor element is proportional to thesquare root of the resistance, it is desirable to keep the resistors 133and 137 as small as possible. Also, being in the very low-voltage inputsection of the chopper 20', only high-quality non-polar linearcapacitors, such as Mylar capacitors, are acceptable for the capacitors132, 135, 136 and 139. Because of their cost and physical sizelimitations, the capacitors 132, 135, 136 and 139 cannot be much largerthan 5 to 10 mfd. One exemplary set of component values for the inputfilter 130 has been found to be 1060 ohms for the resistors 133 and 137and 2.5 mfd. for the capacitors 132 and 136. The capacitors 135 and 139will then be 5 mfd. and the variable resistors 134 and 138 are set to530 ohms. Such a filter attains its high attenuation at the 60 Hz.resonant frequency.

In addition to Johnson noise, the resistors 133 and 137 can also becomea thermoelectric generator or a 1/F "flicker noise" source oflow-frequency noise. This noise can be significantly minimized bywinding the resistors 133 and 137 from Manganin wire, which has the samethermoelectric power coefficient as copper, and by winding the resistorsonto and encasing them within a thermally conducting insulatingcompound. The windings are made in a bifilar manner to virtuallyeliminate inductance and magnetic flux pickup. Finally, the terminals tothe resistors 133 and 137 should be connected to the common heat sinkfor the chopper 20' and the input terminals 72 and 73 to minimize thislow-frequency noise effect.

The circuit of FIG. XIII uses an identical balanced bridge switch as inthe circuit of FIG. II, with the source/drain contacts of the fourMOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 connected between the terminals 45, 46, 47 and48 to form the square configuration of the chopper 20'. However,substrate connections to the MOSFETs are modified to provideback-biasing. Two equal high-valued resistors 140 and 141 are connectedin series between the input terminals 45 and 47. An isolated D.C.voltage source 142 of 5 volts, for example, is connected from thejunction between the series resistors 140 and 141 to the commonsubstrate connections on the MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 to back-bias thesubstrates. The back-biasing prevents the MOSFETs from leaking at highinput voltage E_(s) levels.

The square wave drive for the chopper 20' is generated by an oscillator178 driving a Schmitt trigger 179 which in turn drives a triggeredflip-flop 144 and then two AND gates 145 and 146. An enable signal isapplied on an "address control" input 147 from a suitable externalcontrol (not shown) when the chopper 20' is to be operated. The addresscontrol input 147 is provided for disabling the chopper 20' when severalchoppers are multiplexed together. When this feature is not needed, thegates 145 and 146 may be replaced with amplifiers. This arrangementcauses the flip-flop 144 to develop alternately high Q and Q outputs ata desired chopping frequency, such as a fixed frequency within a rangefrom about 10 Hz. to about 10,000 Hz. The Q and Q outputs from theflip-flop 144 are connected, respectively, to the AND gates 145 and 146such that the gates 145 and 146 produce alternate outputs when enabledby a signal on the input 147.

The alternate outputs from the gates 145 and 146 drive the balancedbridge chopper. However, isolation is necessary since the oscillator178, the Schmitt trigger 179, the flip-flop 144 and the gates 145 and146 are connected to the reference ground 33 while the chopper 20' isconnected to the local ground 33'. Isolation is accomplished by twooptical isolation devices 148 and 149. The isolation device 148 includesa light emitting diode (LED) 150 and an optically driven photodiode orphototransistor 151, while the device 149 includes an LED 152 and anoptically driven photodiode or phototransistor 153. The output from thegate 145 is connected to excite the LED 150 which optically drives thephotodevice 151. Similarly, the output from the gate 146 is connected toexcite the LED 152 which optically drives the photodevice 153.

The common connection between the series high-valued resistors 140 and141 across the input terminals 45 and 47 is used as a drive point forsymmetrically driving the chopper 20' in addition to its use forsymmetrically back-biasing the MOSFET substrates. The connection betweenthe resistors 140 and 141 is connected through a D.C. voltage source 154to the photodevices 151 and 153 in the isolation devices 148 and 149,respectively. The other electrode of the photodevice 151 is connected tothe gate electrodes of the MOSFETs 41 and 43 and the other electrode ofthe photodevice 153 is connected to the gate electrodes of the MOSFETs42 and 44 so that the normally off MOSFETs 41 and 43 conduct when theLED 150 is excited and the normally off MOSFETs 42 and 44 conduct whenLED 152 is excited. A resistor 155 is shown connected across the D.C.source 154 and the photodevice 151 and a resistor 156 is shown connectedacross the D.C. source 154 and the photodevice 153. The resistors 155and 156 provide controlled leakage paths for fast gate "turn off" of theMOSFETs.

The A.C. output from the remote chopper 20' is passed through thepreamplifier 131 prior to transmitting over a coaxial cable 157 to thedistant amplifier, demodulator and other common signal processingapparatus which form a receiver. The preamplifier 131 is of a push-pulltype and includes two very low noise junction field effect transistors(JFETs) 158 and 159. The bridge output terminal 46 is connected througha coupling capacitor 160 to the gate of the JFET 158 and the bridgeoutput terminal 48 is connected through a coupling capacitor 161 to thegate of the JFET 159. The gates of the JFETs 158 and 159 are alsoconnected to the local ground 33' through high-valued resistors 162 and163 which may be on the order of 10 to 100 megohms.

The coaxial cable 157 includes three conductors 164, 165, and 166 and anouter shield 167. The conductor 164 and the shield 167 are connected tothe local ground 33' at the remote chopper 20'. At the distant receiver,the conductor 164 is connected through a low-valued resistor 168 to thereference ground 33. At the receiver end of the cable 157, theconductors 165 and 166 are connected, respectively, to drain contacts ofa pair of switching MOSFETs 180 and 181. The source contacts of theswitching MOSFETs 180 and 181 are connected, respectively, throughresistors 170 and 171 and a D.C. bias voltage source to the referenceground 33 and to output terminals 172 and 173 which may be connected toa common differential amplifier and demodulator (not shown). The voltagesource 169 biases the preamplifier 131 while the resistor 168 prevents acirculating ground loop from developing within the cable 157 and alsoserves to improve the common-mode rejection capability of the overallcircuitry. The source contacts on each of the JFETs 158 and 159 areconnected to the local ground 33' while the drain contacts areconnected, respectively, to the cable conductors 165 and 166. Thus, themodulated low-level signal alternately appears at the chopper outputs 46and 48 for alternately driving the preamplifier transistors 158 and 159.Gate contacts on the switching MOSFETs 180 and 181 are connected to theaddress control input 147 so that the MOSFETs 180 and 181 are switchedon whenever the AND gates 145 and 146 are enabled. Thus, the low-levelvoltage is chopped and amplified and this A.C. signal is conducted overthe cable 157 and applied through the switching MOSFETs 180 and 181 tothe output terminals 172 and 173 when an enable signal is applied to theaddress control input 147.

Input connections 182 and 183 are shown to the substrates of theswitching MOSFETs 180 and 181, respectively. These connections may beused for applying negative feedback from the output of an A.C. amplifierconnected to the terminals 172 and 173 for total amplifier gainstabilization. Separate adjustments on the level of the negative phasedfeedback signals to the connections 182 and 183 may be used tocompensate for any mismatch in the preamplifier JFETs 158 and 159 aswell as any mismatch in the switching MOSFETs 180 and 181. Overallfeedback stabilization also permits wider environmental temperatureextremes in which the entire chopper assembly can be operated because itwill compensate for gain-temperature variations.

Four trimmer capacitors 174-177 are provided for further balancing thechopper 20'. The capacitors 174 and 175 are connected, respectively,between the bridge output terminals 46 and 48 and the local ground 33'.These capacitors 174 and 175 are used to achieve an impedance balance atthe dominant common-mode signal frequency, usually 60 Hz., thuspermitting use of very high values for the output resistors 162 and 163.The capacitor 176 is connected from one of the output terminals,terminal l46 shown in FIG. XIII, to the common gates of the MOSFETs 41and 43 and the capacitor 177 is connected from the same output terminal46 to the common gates of the MOSFETs 42 and 44. By carefully adjustingthe capacitors 176 and 177, gate-channel capacitance unbalance can bereduced, typically by a factor of from 0.1 to 0.01 of its untrimmedlevel, thus keeping the low-level channel relatively free fromgate-drive signals, which would otherwise contribute to zero voltageoffset problems, and could lead to measurement resolution limitations atvery low signal levels.

By locating the preamplifier 131 with the chopper 20', the chopper 20'effectively sees only the heat sink capacitance to local ground 33' inthe high impedance circuit which may, for example, be on the order ofabout 20 pfd. Without the preamplifier 131, as in the circuit of FIG.II, the output from the chopper 20' is also loaded down by thedistributed capacitance from the coaxial cable connecting the outputfrom the chopper 20' to the remote location all at high impedance. For a10 foot cable, this capacitance typically may be about 200 pfd. Thisdecrease in effective output capacitance at the high impedance chopperoutput terminals 46 and 48 by a factor of 10 permits a similar increaseby a factor of 10 of the value of the resistors 162 and 163. Also, theuse of the preamplifier 131 at the location of the remote chopper 20',where it is at local ground 33' instead of at reference ground 33,serves to keep the induced type commonmode noise signals two to threeorders of magnitude smaller whenever one of the low-level input sourceterminals 72 or 73 must be at the local ground potential.

Referring now to FIGS. XIV and XV, there is shown one possibleconstruction of a completely integrated circuit for the balanced bridgechopper 20' of this invention. Herein the conducting substrate 184 maycomprise p-type silicon for all four of the MOSFETs or transistors 41,42, 43 and 44, upon which substrate is deposited the four equally spacedsource/drain metalized sector-shaped layers 185a, 185b, 185c and 185d ina circle to which are connected, respectively and alternately,conductors for the input and output terminals 45, 46, 47 and 48. Theboundaries of the oxide windows under each of these sector layers orplates 185a, 185b, 185c and 185d are indicated by the solid lines 186,and that for the n+ ohmic contact diffusion boundaries of the closedregions are indicated by the dotted lines 186' around these layers orplates and around the boundaries 186. The spaces between adjacentboundaries 186' of adjacent sector plates 185a, 185b, 185c and 185d arebridged by oxide layers 187 as shown in FIG. XV. On the tops of thesebridging oxide layers 187 are deposited the gate electrode metalizationor layers 188a, 188b, 188c and 188d to which the gate connections ofeach of the MOSFETs are made. In the manufacture of these particularconnections 188a through 188d, they may be formed to extend variousradial distances in between the gaps between adjacent sectors 185athrough 185d by production mask modifications, depending upon thecapacity between these sectors, so that a substantially balanced bridgechopper circuit can be manufactured in mass production without therequirement of trimmer condensers 60 and 62 in the circuit of FIG. II orof trimmer condensers 176 and 177 in the circuit of FIG. XIII, asdescribed above.

It has previously been stated that the chopper 20' shown in the circuitof FIG. XIII will receive a drive signal only while a signal is appliedto the address control input 147 to enable the AND gates 145 and 146.While the gates 145 and 146 are disabled, all of the four MOSFETs 41,42, 43 and 44 of the chopper 20' will remain off. With all of theMOSFETs off, the chopper output will be blocked and the output terminals46 and 48 will have a very high impedance, similar to an open switch.This ability to use the balanced bridge chopper 20' as a local groundlevel signal blocking switch under the control of reference groundedlogic level addressing circuitry permits the use of the copper 20' in anN data channel low-level multiplexer. Such a multiplexing system isreadily adaptable to continuous on-line control of a complex system orindustrial process, in addition to being useful as an N-channel datacollecting system.

Turning now to FIG. XVI, an N data channel multiplexing system 190 isshown for controlling an industrial process or system 191. The system191 includes N data sensors (not shown) for monitoring N differentparameters or conditions within the system 191. The different sensorsmay be of any conventional design, floating or otherwise notelectrically connected to the local ground, and they may vary in detailwithin the system 191, depending upon the actual parameter or conditionthey are required to measure. The sensors generate output voltagesE_(S1), E_(S2) . . . E_(SN) which are typically on the order of onemicrovolt or larger up to possibly several volts, with time variationspossessing a range of from near-D.C. to low audio frequency response. Adigital computer 192 or other suitable type of process controller isprovided for controlling or monitoring the system 191 through signalsapplied over N control lines 193, when applicable, in response to thesensed voltages E_(S1) through E_(SN).

N balanced bridge choppers 194-l through 194-N (only three shown) areprovided for selectively modulating the N voltages E_(S1) through E_(SN)from the system sensors and for multiplexing the modulated voltages tothe computer 192. The choppers 194 may be similar to the choppers 20'shown in FIG. XIII up to the points A-B which include the outputcoupling capacitors 160 and 161, with the preamplifier 131 omitted sinceneither sub-microvolt voltages nor locally grounded voltage sources arebeing measured in the exemplary multiplexing system of FIG. XVI. Thetwin-tee input 130 may also be eliminated in cases where 60 Hz. or someother dominant frequency common-mode noise signals are not a seriousproblem in a specific multiplexing system. The outputs from the choppers194-l through 194-N are connected through N locally grounded shieldedcoaxial cables 195-l through 195-N in common to the input of an A.C.amplifier 196 at the distant location. The output from the amplifier 196is connected through a synchronous demodulator 197, a low pass filter198, a D.C. amplifier 199 and an autoranging analog-to-digital converter200, which utilizes a digitally switchable incremental intermediatestage gain control feedback loop to the A.C. amplifier 196, to achievean input to the computer 192. Depending upon which one of the choppers194-l through 194-N is operating at any given instant, a digitizedrepresentation of one of the sensor voltages E_(Sl) through E_(SN) willbe applied to the computer 192 where it may be stored in a memory 201for use in either controlling the system 191 or for maintaining a timedata record of the actual operation of the system 191.

Logic circuitry under the control of the computer 192 controls operationof the choppers 194-l through 194-N. A reference oscillator 202, aSchmitt trigger 203 and a triggered flip-flop 204 continuously generateoutputs which appear alternately on lines 205 and 206. The line 205 isconnected to N AND gates, of which three typical gates 207-209 areshown. Similarly, the line 206 is connected to N AND gates, three ofwhich gates 210-212 are shown. The lines 205 and 206 are also connectedto the common demodulator 197 for synchronizing demodulation with theA.C. signal equivalent of whichever sensor chopper output is activated.The computer 192 supplies address data to an address control circuit 213for selectively enabling the AND gates 207-212. The address controlcircuit 213 may, for example, consist of a binary-to-N line decoder.Depending upon binary address data received from the computer 192, thecircuit 213 will apply a signal on one of N outputs, of which threeoutputs 214, 215 and 216 are shown. When a signal appears on the output214 from the address control circuit 213, the gates 207 and 210 areenabled to apply square wave chopper drive signals from the flip-flopoutputs 205 and 206 to the chopper 194-1. Similarly, the address controloutput 215 enables the gates 208 and 211 to apply square-wave drivesignals to the chopper 194-2 and the address control output 216 enablesthe gates 209 and 212 to apply drive signals to the chopper 194-N. Sincethe address control circuit 213 applies a signal at most on only one ofthe N outputs, only one of the N choppers 194-l through 194-N will begated on at any given instant. Either by blocking an address output fromthe computer 192 or by addressing an unused output from the addresscontrol 213, all of the choppers 194-l through 194-N will remain off.Thus, the computer 192 may be used on a time sharing basis and thedigitized chopper output is disabled while the computer 192 performsfunctions other than the control or monitoring of the system 191. THefact that only one channel at a time is permitted to transmit at thesynchronous chopper frequency means that "cross-talk" between the N datachannels is virtually totally eliminated. Furthermore, the highcommon-mode signal rejection ratio of each separate chopper assemblyaids considerably in reducing complex ground loops which would otherwisearise if N separate local ground connections had to be made to thedifferent transducers within the system 191.

An N data channel multiplexer 190' is shown in FIG. XVII with theaddition of remote preamplifiers for each data channel and of individualchannel isolation switching which is physically located adjacent thecommon A.C. amplifier 196. Each of the N data channels is identical tothe circuit of FIG. XIII. However, circuitry to the left of points A-Bis shown merely as the block representations of the choppers 194-lthrough 194-N while the preamplifiers 131 and channel switching MOSFETsare shown in detail. The N separate data channels are connected viaseparate coaxial cables, of which three cables 217-219 are shown forthree typical channels, to the A.C. amplifier 196. Isolation MOSFETswitches are provided for each channel to prevent the (N-1) inactivepreamplifiers from loading the activated preamplifier, as well as toprevent undesirable distributed cable capacitive loading at the input tothe common amplifier 196. The source and drain contacts of a pair ofswitching MOSFETs 220 are connected in series between the two signalcarrying conductors from the first channel coaxial cable 217 and theinput of the A.C. amplifier 196. The gates of the MOSFETs 220 areconnected in parallel to the output 214 from the address control circuit213 such that the MOSFETs 220 are switched on whenever gate drive isapplied through the AND gates 207 and 210 to the first channel chopper194-l. Similarly, a pair of MOSFETs 221 are connected in series betweenthe cables 218 and the A.C. amplifier 196 and have gate contactsconnected to the output 215 from the address control circuit 213 and apair of MOSFETs 222 are connected in series between the cable 219 andthe A.C. amplifier 196 and have gate contacts connected to the addresscontrol output 216.

As indicated above, a separate preamplifier for each channel is locatedadjacent the choppers 194-l through 194-N. Each preamplifier includes apair of junction field effect transistors (JFETs) 223 and a pair ofequal high-valued resistors 224. The gate contacts of the two JFETs 223for a channel are connected, respectively, to the two output terminalsfrom a chopper and through the resistors 224 in a balanced manner to thelocal ground, as in FIG. XIII. The source contact of ech JFET 223 isalso connected to the local ground while the drain control is connectedthrough a coaxial cable, cable 217 for the first channel, to the draincontact of one switching MOSFET, 220 for the first data channel, forapplying a preamplifier signal to the input of the amplifier 196 whensuch data channel is activated. Biasing for the preamplifier is providedby means of a D.C. voltage source 225. Adjacent the amplifier 196, thepositive terminal of the voltage source 224 is connected through twoequal resistors 226 to the two input terminals to the amplifier 196. Thenegative terminal from the voltage source 225 is connected to thereference ground and also through a resistor 227, one for each datachannel, and the coaxial cable to local ground for each data channel.The continuity between the reference ground and each local ground,necessary for individual preamplifier performance, is maintained withthe low-valued resistors 227, which also serve to minimize circulatingground loops within the shielded cable for each channel. Through thisarrangement of using preamplifiers and separate isolation switches foreach channel, nearly complete isolation is provided, even though acommon-mode signal may exist between the local ground for the differentchannels. Furthermore, as indicated above, the connection of the severalchannels in multiplexing arrangement to the common input of the A.C.amplifier 196 does not capacitively load the input to the amplifier 196to an undesirable degree. Otherwise, excessive capacitive loading couldhave an adverse affect on common-mode rejection balance and possiblycause response time limitations on the overall signal processing.

As indicated above in the description of FIG. XIII, negative feedback isprovided to the substrates of the switching MOSFETs 220 forstabilization. The feedback signals may be taken from the outputterminals 253 and 254 from the A.C. amplifier 196. The output terminals253 and 254 are connected to the reference ground through a pair ofpotentiometers for each channel. Potentiometer 255 is shown connected tothe terminal 253 and potentiometer 256 is shown connected to theterminal 254 for providing adjustable feedback signals to the substratesof the switching MOSFETs 220 for the first channel. The connections fromthe A.C. amplifier output terminals 253 and 254 to the switching MOSFETs220 are such that the feedback signals are negatively phased. Byadjusting the potentiometers 255 and 256, the overall gain of each sideof the channel is balanced for any mismatching of the preamplifier JFETs223 and the switching MOSFETs 220 and the preamplifier is temperaturestabilized.

The exemplary balanced bridge chopper circuit shown in FIG. XIIIincludes a D.C. voltage source 154 and two optical isolation devices 148and 149 for driving the gates of the MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 and alsoincludes a D.C. voltage source 142 for back-biasing the substrates ofthe MOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44. These elements may be replaced with anovel photovoltaic isolation device in accordance with another featureof the invention.

Turning to FIG. XVIII, a schematic circuit diagram is shown for a novelphotvoltaic isolation device 235. When a D.C. voltage is applied,plus-to-negatively, respectively, to a pair of input terminals 236 and237, a D.C. output voltage will appear across a pair of output terminals238 and 239. The power absorbed at the input terminals 236 and 237 of agallium arsenide light emitting diode (LED) 240 is converted to radiantlight energy. This light energy is directed towards a large number ofintegrated circuit series-connected planar-silicon photovoltaic diodes241, which generate the output voltage at the terminals 238 and 239.Since optical coupling is used, the input terminals 236 and 237 areelectrically isolated from the output terminals 238 and 239. Opticalisolation makes the device 234 particularly suitable for drivingcircuitry at the local ground level with circuitry at the referenceground level without establishing undesirable ground loop currents.

As shown in FIG. XVIII, the input terminals 236 and 237 are connected tothe gallium arsenide LED 240 located within the device 235. The LED 240is positioned above a large plurality of planar-silicon photovoltaicdiodes 241 manufactured in integrated circuit fashion to be inelectrical series between the output terminals 238 and 239. When aphotovoltaic diode such as the diodes 241 is optically excited withsufficiently short-wave light energy, a small voltage will appear acrossits anode and cathode electrodes. The voltage across the individualdiodes 241 is additive when the diodes 241 are connected in series,thereby producing a voltage across the terminals 238 and 239 equal tothe sum of the voltages generated in the individual photovoltaic diodes241.

The need to use many diodes to fit under one LED to achieve highervoltages requires each diode to be physically very small, thus causing ahigh internal impedance within the diodes 241 themselves. The highinternal impedance of the diodes 241 limits the capabilities of thedevices 235 to supply an output voltage to a low impedance load.However, such a limitation does not affect the suitability of the device235 for use in MOSFET gate-drive circuitry such as that shown in FIG.XIII. As shown in FIG. XVIII, the output terminals 238 and 239 from thedevice 235 are connected, respectively, to the gate and the sourcecontacts of a normally-off n-channel MOSFET 242. The output terminal 239is also connected to a terminal 243 and the drain contact of the MOSFET242 is connected to a terminal 244. As long as no power is applied tothe input terminals 236 and 237, the MOSFET 242 will be non-conductingand a resistance on the order of about 10¹⁰ ohms will appear across theoutput terminals 243 and 244. When a D.C. voltage is applied to theinput terminals 236 and 237 to excite the light emitting diode 240, theoutput voltage across the terminals 238 and 239 from the device 235causes the MOSFET 242 to conduct, lowering the resistance between theterminals 243 and 244 typically to about 100 ohms. A zener diode 245 ofproper polarity, as shown, may be connected between the terminals 238and 239 from the device 235 to protect the gate circuit of the MOSFET242 from destructive negative static electric high voltage accumulation.It is to be noted that the gate circuit of a typical MOSFET providesnegligible load and may have a resistance on the order of 10¹² ohms. Asa consequence, the effective load across the output terminals 238 and239 will be the very small internal surface leakage resistance of eachphotovoltaic diode 241 plus any small leakage resistance of theback-biased zener diode 245 connected across the output terminals 238and 239.

Since the load on the device 235 is extremely small, the separate p-njunctions forming the diodes 241 may be on the order of only a few milsin diameter and may be fabricated using planar-silicon integratedcircuit methods. Such methods permit mass production of the devices 235at relatively low cost.

Turning to FIGS. XIX and XX, a fragmentary portion of a photovoltaicisolation device 235 formed by integrated circuit techniques is shown.The light emitting diode 240, which is not shown in these figures,illuminates an area generally represented by the fragment of a circle246. The individual diodes are formed on an n-substrate material 247 andare located within the illuminated area 246. The diodes are formed on anupper surface 248 of the substrate 247. Using well-known mask-etchedoxide window techniques to delineate each diode 241, in proper sequence,the p-regions 249 and the n-regions 250 are diffused into an n-typesubstrate 247. Then a device-grade oxide layer 252 is grown andmask-etched with final mask-etch metalization patterns 251 to completethe series interconnection pattern between the diodes 241.

It will be noted that the same general principle for photovoltaicgeneration of electricity has been used in the past in the so-called"solar cell". However, such cells were formed in large planar sheetstypically several inches in arear for a single junction and great carehad to be taken to obtain the low internal resistance necessary formaximum power transfer. Here, however, load impedance being well beyondthe high megohm region permits efficiency considerations to beeliminated, and the photovoltaic isolation device 235 may be constructedwith a large number of series connected diodes which are sufficientlysmall as to be illuminated by a single light emitting diode. In the moretypical photoconductive optical couplers, an external power supply isrequired in the output circuit. Large junction size, permitting greaterphotoconduction currents, has usually been used. The junction sizeprevented a plurality of photovoltaic diodes from being incorporatedunder a single light emitting diode.

From the above description, it will be appreciated that the photovoltaicisolation device 235 may be used for replacing the D.C voltage source142 and the combined voltage source 154 and photoconductive devices 148and 149 in the circuit of FIG. XIII. Just as the oscillator 178, theSchmitt trigger 179, the flip-flop 144 and the AND gates 145 and 146alternately excite the light emitting diodes 150 and 152 in the devices148 and 149, respectively, the light emitting diodes 240 in two devices235 may similarly be excited. In such an embodiment of the chopper 20',the output terminal 238 from one photovoltaic isolation device 235 maybe connected directly to the gate contacts of the opposed MOSFETs 41 and43 and the output terminal 238 from a second photovoltaic isolationdevice may be connected to the gate contacts of the opposed MOSFETs 42and 44, while their negative output terminals 239 are attached to thecommon junction between resistors 155 and 156, without the need for thebulky, leakage-prone voltage source 154. When the light emitting diodes240 in the two devices 235 are alternately excited, the opposed MOSFETs41 and 43 and the opposed MOSFETs 42 and 44 will alternately conduct tochop or modulate a signal, as before.

In addition to providing optical isolation between the chopper 20' andthe remote drive circuitry, a photovoltaic isolation device 235 may alsobe used as a voltage source for replacing the D.C. source 142 whichback-biases the MOSFET substrates. Without the use of the device 235,such a D.C. source would have to be built using an isolating 60 Hz.transformer, a rectifying bridge, filter capacitors and a zener dioderegulator, all of which are extremely bulky, costly and prone to limitremote chopper performance by leakage of the transformer. If a multiplep-n junction photovoltaic device similar to that shown in FIGS. XVIII-XXis permanently activated, it will generate a constant D.C. outputvoltage which may be used for back-biasing the substrates of the MOSFETs41, 42, 43 and 44. The photovoltaic device 235 is ideal for generatingthe necessary back-bias voltage while maintaining at least 10¹² ohmsisolation from the reference ground. Also, there would be no need forproviding 60 Hz. alternating current near the chopper 20' for operatingthe D.C. power source 142 or the D.C. power source 154 of the circuit ofFIG. XIII, thus eliminating this source of electromagnetic flux whichcan add to the common-mode signal. Other applications of thephotovoltaic device 235 involving the use of isolated linear gates inother types of circuitry would clearly be an improvement to thatrespective circuit art, for the above-stated reasons.

U.S. Pat. No. 3,366,802, which issued on Jan. 30, 1968 to Hilbiber,discloses a photo-chopper comprising a junction field effect transistorwhich is specially fabricated with a light sensitive surface in the gatevicinity. Electrical gating action between the two drain/source contactsin the JFET is achieved by directing light on the gate region, therebycausing the photovoltaic effect to develop an internal biasing voltagewhich turns off this normally-on JFET. The action attainable with theHilbiber photo-chopper is similar to that attainable by the combinationof the isolated photovoltaic device 235 with the normally off MOSFET242, as shown in FIG. XVIII. The Hilbiber JFET photo-chopper can besubstituted into the circuits of FIGS. II and XIII for the switchingMOSFETs 41, 42, 43 and 44 and photodrive can be handled withreference-grounded logic, thereby maintaining the much needed electricalisolation from reference ground to the chopper circuit in a low-cost,but less than optimum version of the chopper bridge assembly. However,there are two problems with the use of these photo-chopper elements inthis application. One is that they would afford less channel switchisolation while in the off condition. The other problem is that directimpingement of light on the same semiconductor material which is used toconduct the low-level signal would very likely lead to thermalinstabilities causing electrical noise between the two drain/sourcecontacts, thus limiting such a chopper assembly to a range considerablyabove one microvolt in sensitivity. In contradiction to these problems,the photovoltaically-driven MOSFET switch combination of FIG. XVIIIwould not be subject to these problems.

Accordingly, it will be readily understood that the balanced bridgechopper of this invention and its particular isolated connections to thesquare wave driving circuit may be fabricated in several different ways,and that other embodiments for forming the same function may beinterchanged without departing from the scope of this invention. It willalso be appreciated that the doping types for the transistors and thediodes can be reversed, i.d. p-semiconductor material may be substitutedfor n-semiconductor material and vise versa with similar results. Itwill further be appreciated that various other detailed modificationsand changes may be made in the above-described principles of thisinvention without departing from the spirit and the scope of thefollowing claims.

What I claim is:
 1. A chopper circuit for modulating a low-level signalfrom a source located adjacent a local ground which is electricallydisplaced from a reference ground comprising, in combination, a balancedbridge chopper including four normally-off MOSFETs with the source/draincontact of a different MOSFET connected into each of four legs extendingbetween four terminals to form a square configuration, one pair ofopposed terminals defining bridge input terminals and the other pair ofopposed terminals defining bridge outout terminals, means for applyingsuch low-level signal to said input terminals for modulation, heat sinkmeans mounting said input and output terminals and said MOSFETS, saidheat sink means maintaining said terminals and said MOSFETs atsubstantially the same temperature, capacitive balancing means betweenat least one of said output terminals and the gates of the two adjacentMOSFETs connected to such output terminal for capacitively balancingsaid bridge chopper, means for alternatively driving opposing pairs ofsaid MOSFETs such that while one pair of opposing MOSFETs aresimultaneously conducting the other pair are non-conducting whereby asquare wave A.C. signal proportional in magnitude to such low-levelsignal is applied to said bridge output terminals, and means forconnecting said bridge output terminals to a signal receiver locatedadjacent the reference ground without changing the magnitude of thesignal applied to such receiver by the displacement between thereference ground and the local ground.
 2. A chopper circuit, as setforth in claim 1, wherein MOSFET driving means includes a square wavesource located adjacent a reference ground which is spaced from thelocal ground, and means for driving said MOSFETs from the output of saidsquare wave source including means for electrically isolating saidbalanced bridge chopper from the direct output of said square wavesource whereby the output from said balanced bridge chopper isunaffected by the electrical ground displacement between said squarewave source and said balanced bridge chopper.
 3. A chopper circuit, asset forth in claim 2, wherein said isolating means includes atransformer having a primary winding and two shielded center tappedsecondary windings, means applying the output of said square wave sourceto said primary winding, shielded cable means connecting said secondarywinding center taps to different ones of said bridge input terminals andconnecting the four ends of said secondary windings to different ones ofthe gates of the four MOSFETs with the ends of each secondary windingconnected to the gates of the two MOSFETs connected to the bridge inputterminal connected to the center tap for such secondary winding, ashield surrounding said balanced bridge chopper, and means connectingthe shields for said secondary windings, said cable means and saidbalanced bridge chopper to the local ground.
 4. A chopper circuit, asset forth in claim 2, wherein said isolating means includes two opticalisolation devices each comprising a light source and output meansresponsive to light from said light source for establishing a D.C.voltage, and wherein said driving means includes means connecting saidoutput means from one optical isolation device between said bridge inputterminals and the gates of one opposed pair of said MOSFETs, meansconnecting said output means from the other optical isolation devicebetween said bridge input terminals and the gates of the other opposedpair of said MOSFETs, and means for alternately energizing the lightsources in said two optical isolation devices whereby such devicesalternately generate sufficient D.C. voltages for alternately turning onsaid pairs of opposed MOSFETs connected to such devices.
 5. A choppercircuit, as set forth in claim 4, wherein said output means from each ofsaid optical isolation devices comprises a D.C. voltage source connectedin series with a photoconductor located adjacent the light source forsuch device.
 6. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 4, wherein saidoutput means from each of said optical isolation devices comprising aplurality of series connected photovoltaic diodes.
 7. A chopper circuit,as set forth in claim 6, wherein for each optical isolation device, saidlight source is a gallium arsenide light emitting diode and saidplurality of series connected diodes are formed as a singleplanar-silicon integrated circuit with said diodes located to besimultaneously illuminated by said light emitting diode.
 8. A choppercircuit, as set forth in claim 7, and including a third opticalisolation device similar to said two optical isolation devices, meansfor continuously energizing the light emitting diode in said thirddevice, and means connecting the output means from said third opticalisolation device between said bridge input terminals and a commonconnection to the substrate of said four MOSFETs for back-biasing saidsubstrates.
 9. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 1, and furtherincluding means mounting said heat sink means adjacent the low-levelsignal source for thermal conductivity with such signal source.
 10. Achopper circuit, as set forth in claim 9, and further including twotrimmer capacitors, one connected between each of said bridge outputterminals and the local ground, said two trimmer capacitors reducing thedominant frequency common-mode signal at said bridge output terminals.11. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 10, and further including abalanced twin-tee low pass filter having input and output terminals,said filter resonating at the frequency of the dominant common-modesignal, and means connecting said filter input and output terminals inseries between the low-level signal source and said bridge inputterminals, said heat sink means including means mounting said filterterminals.
 12. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 9, and furtherincluding a balanced twin-tee low pass filter having input and outputterminals, said filter resonating at the frequency of the dominantcommom-mode signal, and means connecting said filter input and outputterminals in series between the low-level signal source and said bridgeinput terminals, said heat sink means including means mounting saidfilter terminals.
 13. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 9,wherein said means for connecting said bridge output terminals to suchreceiver includes a locally grounded preamplifier having an inputconnected to said bridge output terminals and a balanced outputconnected to a shielded coaxial cable transmission line, saidtransmission line conducting the amplifier bridge output to suchreference grounded receiver, and means connecting said transmission lineshielding to the local ground.
 14. A chopper circuit, as set forth inclaim 9, wherein said means for connecting said bridge output terminalsto such receiver includes a shielded coaxial cable transmission lineconnecting said bridge output terminals to such distant referencegrounded receiver, and means connecting said transmission line shieldingto the local ground.
 15. A chopper circuit, as set forth in claim 1,wherein said four MOSFETs and said capacitive balancing means are formedas a single integrated circuit.
 16. A chopper circuit, as set forth inclaim 1, wherein said capacitive balancing means comprises a firstcapacitor connected between said one output terminal and the gate of oneadjacent MOSFET connected to said one output terminal, and a secondcapacitor connected between said one output terminal and the gate of theother adjacent MOSFET connected to said one output terminal, and whereinsaid four MOSFETs and said first and second capacitors are formed as asingle integrated circuit.